Thursday, January 8, 2015

Frosty's Logs in Developing Horticulturre



Low labour productivity and missing link between farmers and market are the two primary reasons for Bhutanese farming not being profitable.  

The farmers are using no longer economically viable technologies due to which Bhutanese farming has low labour productivity.  This issue is long been known.  It is also known that the problem can be resolved by enabling farmers to use modern technologies and engaging private sector for connecting Bhutanese farms to market.  

While the labour productivity is low, high Custom Duties (CD) and Sales Taxes (ST) are levied on green house, drip irrigation and hybrid seeds which are necessary to promote horticultural enterprise, increase labour productivity and profitability.  This has been a long standing dilemma of horticulture development.  

High costs of production technologies and absence of market a farm gate have been deterrent to creating job for youths in horticulture.  

Inarguably private sector can provide market at farm gate and execute trading beyond Phuentsholing auction yards.  Also the private sector can deliver agricultural technologies and associated inputs much more effectively and efficiently.  

The present system of civil service agencies buying and selling agricultural inputs to which CD and ST are exempted, needs to be reviewed in the light of the cost to the Government and engaging private sector to which CD and ST are levied.  

It is high time that supply of agricultural inputs to farmers be deregulated and let the private sector to do it. 
The Bhutan Trade Classification (BTC) - Customs Tariff and Sales Tax Schedule, 5th Edition, January 2012, has the following provision for Custom Duty and Sales Tax.  

Head
BTC Code
Commodity Description
CD
%
ST
%
1209
1209.91.00
Vegetable Seeds
50
0

The 50% CD is levied on hybrid vegetables seed imported from third countries, the countries other than India.  

The 50% CD is levied even when the seed is brought from Indian market imported by Indian Companies.  It means tariff restriction is imposed on Bhutanese farmers from using hybrid vegetables seeds from countries like Japan.  

Under the BTC Head 39.17, 30% CD and 10% ST are levied for drip irrigation system. 
Similarly under the BTC Code 73.02, 20% CD and 10% ST are levied for green house.

Fiscal Incentive Policy 2010, General Rule 4.2 says:

Text Box: Goods exempted for Custom Duty (CD) and Sales Tax (ST) cannot be sold or exported.





If CD and ST are not levied to the private sector just as to the civil service agencies, the private sector, competing in the market, can effectively deliver agricultural inputs at competitive market price to the farmers.  There will be huge cost saving to the Government in terms of civil servants being engaged in buying and selling, subsidy grants, revolving fund, and capital and recurrent annual budget.  

Waving off CD and ST on production technologies and associated agricultural inputs will bring down the cost and improves affordability of the farmers to modern production technologies.

Farmers not been able to use technologies mean Bhutanese farming remaining in-competitive and unprofitable.  Therefore, the policy of levying CD and/or ST on horticultural technologies needs to be looked at in the light that whether it is contributing more to the national economy or there can be more benefit in not levying the CD and/or ST.  

Truly farmers need support in a packaged form.  Waving off CD and ST will bring down the cost of production technologies and associated inputs by 30 to 50%.  Providing capital investment support will shorten the long gestation /turnover period.  Providing credit at lower interest rate enables farmer to pay back the credit and earn profit in shorter period than otherwise possible with high interest rate.  Having insurance scheme for commercial horticulture encourages farmers to burrow and invest.  All these need to be balanced and packaged.

Inherently the green house, drip irrigation and hybrid seeds are expensive and adding high CD and ST makes them even more expensive and unaffordable to the farmers.  If the cost of agricultural production technologies and associated inputs are lowered by waving off CD and ST, its combination with low interest credit being provided by the Government will have synergistic impact on adoption of horticultural enterprise. 

The best practices in promoting horticultural enterprises have been the provision of initial capital investment support and low interest credit in back-ended mode.  These two support mechanisms together with market support needs to be considered together.

The promotional programs purchase hybrid seeds, green house and drip irrigation system and demonstrate to the farmers.  But until appropriate support in packaged form is provided to farmers and private sector, the promotional program may not achieve the objective.

For enabling Bhutanese farmers to use production technologies and connect them to local, regional and global markets we need to do macro-economic research to guide the process of making right policy.  

The horticulture development has not been able to attract private sector investment.  The development programs have been conventionally focusing on welfare rather than agri-business.  The horticulture development projects are less subjected to commercial discipline which blurbs the role of private sector.  

Every 9 out of 10 jobs are said to be provided by private sector.  It is in this sector most jobs will have to be created in the future.  For this reason good framework and support for private sector is inevitable for horticulture development.

The Government has immensely invested on formation of cooperatives.  But the sizes of cooperatives are small and therefore not been able to execute their own sales and marketing.  Given the small size of individual farm, nature of terrain and pattern of settlement, the individual cooperative will always be small.  

The cooperatives so far developed need private sector to provide market at farm gate.  Only then the small scattered cooperatives will succeed.

The high initial investment costs and risks are the primary underlying reasons as why there is low private sector investment in horticulture.  By nature the horticultural enterprise involves high initial investment costs and risks in the early years.  The private sector investors will not bear the high initial investment cost and risk particularly when profitability is not assured.  

To kick start of horticulture development, every aspect including duties and tax regimes, capital investment support, credit interest rate should be looked together.  

The private sector can play a crucial role in creating jobs in horticulture if right policy and regulatory paradigm are in place. 

The right policy and regulatory paradigm can only be assured with continuous public-private dialogue as partners.  Clearly there is a need of a formal structural platform for public-private dialogue. 

The Horticulture Development Policy and Strategy of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests for 8th FYP (1995) had proposed for Horticulture Development Board.  A platform such as Horticulture Development Board is necessary to engage private sector as responsible partner for developing horticulture industry transforming every Bhutanese farm to an agri-business enterprise.  

It is only with continuous public-private dialogue at a formal platform there will be integrated policy and packaged support for addressing the challenges of promoting agri-business in horticulture.  


Wednesday, January 7, 2015

Large Cardamom Cultivation



LARGE CARDAMOM
(Amomum subulatum Roxb)

INTRODUCTION
The Large Cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb) is one of the major export commodities of Bhutan.  As per the national statistics, Bhutan exported 650 Mt dried Cardamom in 2013.  The unaccounted sale through middle man would have occurred similar or more amount.  Depending on the quality of the product, the farm gate price was US$ 18.00 to 25.50 per kg of dried cardamom. 
Traditionally Cardamom used to be cultivated in registered Cardamom orchards only.  In recent years farmers are also growing Cardamom in dry lands where food crops used to be grown.  The production is increasing primarily due to decline in the incidence of diseases naturally.
With the improvement in drying Cardamom in traditional driers locally called Bhatti the amount of fuel wood required for drying has been minimised and the quality has improved. 
The important aspect of Large Cardamom is its ability to grow on steep slopes and gullies where other crops cannot be grown successfully.  The dried Cardamom can be stored for a long time and it is easily portable.  No purchased inputs or chemicals are necessarily required or used and hence Cardamom of Bhutan is Naturally Organic Product. 
Since Cardamom is shade loving plant, farmers plant and maintain adequate shading trees in their plantations, which also provide sustained supply of fuel wood for drying.  Thus it has positive impact on environment. 
With regards to cultivation practices of Large the Cardamom in Bhutan, there is more to learn from farmers than to prescribe technical prescriptions based on proven facts available in scientific literatures. 
The Large Cardamom of Bhutan is known for its high natural qualities containing 2-3% essential oil which is its most desired flavouring property and has other properties like carminative, stomachic, diuretic, cardiac stimulant and antiemetic. 
GROWING Large CARDAMOM
Altitude
Large Cardamom can be cultivated from about 900 to 2000 m asl where severe frost do not occur and soils remain moist throughout the year. 
Soil
The ideal soil is acidic sandy loam soil and the soil depth should be 25 cm or more. 
The pH value of the soil should be about 5.0 to 6.5, which means acidic soil. 
The soil should have high organic carbon i.e. more than 3.5% organic carbon.  On an average the soils should have high in available nitrogen and medium in available phosphorus and potassium. 
Water logged conditions are not suitable.  This condition is naturally fulfilled as water logged areas is less on the slopping terrain where Large Cardamom is grown. 
Shade
The Large Cardamom is a shade loving plant.  It grows best in defused light under shade because direct sunlight is harmful to the plant. 
In summer months at least 50% of the full day sunlight must be intercepted.  The day light intensity required for optimum growth of Large Cardamom is about 5,000 to 20,000 lux. 
Shady trees must be grown to protect the Large Cardamom plants from direct sunlight in summer and from frost in winter.  In a newly established plantation distance between the shading trees should be about 5x5 meters and in a fully established plantation, depending upon the canopy size of individual species and their growth, the distance could be about 10x10 meters.
Rainfall
A good crop of Cardamom requires about 3000 to 3500 mm rainfall per annum.  To protect the plants from drought stress during dry months the plants should be mulched with dry leaves and trash accumulated from weeding of the orchard.
Land topography
Cardamom can be grown on any slope on which inter-culture operations can be done conveniently.  At lower altitudes, the South facing slopes are less favourable while at higher altitudes above 1200 m asl the importance of aspects of the slope is less. 
VARIETIES
The prominent varieties are altitude specific.  Therefore, while planting Large Cardamom the following guideline must be followed:
Altitudes (m asl)
Best Suited Varieties
900-1200
Golsey, Sawney
1200-1600
Rato-Golsey, Seto-golsey, Ramla, and Sawney,
Above 1600
Madhusey, Ramsey, Ramla and Bharlangay
Many wild relatives of Amomum subulatum like Amomum aromaticam are native to Bhutan, which offer opportunity for developing better varieties.
Golsey
Within Golsey, there are Seto Golsey, Rato (pink) Golsey and Dzongu-Golsey. 
Of the three, Dzongu-Golsey is specific to lower altitudes below 1200 m asl. 
Seto-Golsey is medium yielding variety and Rato-Golsey is a high yielding variety with less specificity to altitude. 
Golsey varieties are tolerant to diseases Tshirkay and Foorkay.
Sawney
Sawney is adaptable to different altitudes but its yield potential is lower than other varieties.  It has certain degree of tolerance to Tshirkay and Foorkay diseases.
Ramsey
Ramsey is suited to altitudes above 1600 m asl.  This variety is susceptible to Tshirkay and Foorkay diseases. 
Bharlangay
Bharlangay can be grown from 900 to 2000 ma asl.  Its yield increases with increasing altitude and the highest yield is above 1600 m asl.  However it is susceptible to Tshirkay and Foorkay diseases. 
Ramla and Madhusey varieties are suited to high altitudes.  The certified planting materials are only available in Sikkim in India and the reliable source of certified planting materials of Large Cardamom are:
   Pangthang and Kabi Farms, Gangtok, Sikkim.
Besides conventional varieties these farms particularly the Pangthang Farm has evolved a number of promising clones like SBLC-5, SBLC-48, SBLC-49 and SBLC-50 through tissue culture technique. 
To import planting materials from Sikkim farmers are required to obtain Import Permit for Bhutan Agriculture and Food Regulatory Authority (BAFRA) and the plants should be brought along with valid phytosanitary certificate. 
PLANTING MATERIALS
Planting material can be produced from seeds or from slips cut from elite clumps. 
It is convenient to produce planting materials by cutting slips from healthy orchards not infested by diseases.  The slips with 2-3 leaves having folded young leaf upright at the growing point is of appropriate size for planting.  The rhizom at the base of the slips should be plump with a good number of roots. 
However, seedlings raised from seeds are free from virus diseases.  Disease free planting materials can be produced from seed harvested from elite clumps.
In Large Cardamom the yield per plant depends upon clump growth, plant height, number of spikes per tiller, number of productive tillers per clump, number of capsules per spike and size of the capsules.  Considering these criteria the elite clumps should be selected. 
The process involves the following steps:
Step-1:  Harvest the spikes from the elite clumps.  Separate the capsules and let it cure for 3-5 days.
Step-2:  Remove the seeds and wash with ash and fine sand; clean it and let it air dry in a dark room for 4-5 days only.  Do not keep of let it dry for more than 5 days. 
Step-3:  Apply good compost and fine sand at the rate of 10 kg each per square meter area.   Mix the soil, sand and compost thoroughly and raise the nursery beds of 15 cm height and 1.5 meter width. 
Step-4:  Before sowing treat the seeds with fungicide like Carbendazim 50 WP at the rate of 1-2 gm per kilogram seeds.  Sow the seeds in line 15 cm apart and maintain 2-3 cm distance between seeds. 
Cover the seeds with a soil layer of about 2-3 cm thick and cover the nursery bed with straw (about 2-3 cm thick). 
Watering should be done every day for a month after sowing, and in every two days in the second month.  From the third months onwards, watering is necessary twice a week until germination. 
The variety Golsey will germinate in about three months with a germination percentage of about 30-35 percent and the variety Ramsey will germinate in about 5-6 months with germination percentage of about 20-25 percent. 
Step-5:  After germination when the plants are about 15 cm tall in the second year, the saplings should be transplanted to second nursery at a distance of 30-40 cm apart. 
In the third year the sapling will be ready for transplanting in the months June-July, which is the appropriate time of planting Large Cardamom. 
The saplings ready for transplanting should have a height of about one meter with a number of young tillers. 
PLANTING
Initially planting should be done at a distance of 1.5 x 1.5 meters, which may later be spaced at 3 x 3 meters, depending upon the growth and size of the clumps. 
The planting pit size should be of 40 x 40 cm and it should be at least 30 cm deep.  The pits should be filled with the mixture of compost and top soils.  In each pit apply 5-10 kg compost. 
The appropriate time of planting is June, at the beginning of monsoon season.  It can also be planted in July but not later than July as the survival rate of plants goes down if planted in August. 
The number of seedlings per unit area depends upon the type of terrain and density of shady trees.  On an average about 2500 plants/ slips are required for one acre area. 
In an established plantation, farmers are advised to look for elite clumps from which the slips should be taken out for further plantation and gap filling. 
MANAGEMENT
In managing Large Cardamom orchard, four things are of utmost importance:
1.   Canopy cover management,
2.   Insect pests and diseases management,
3.   Inter-culture operations, and
4.   Protection from cattle grazing.
Canopy cover management
Farmers should consistently raise a nursery of shady tree and plant in spots where the canopy cover is opening up and direct sun light is falling on the ground.  Tree species that may be planted for shade, fuel wood for drying and other purposes could be:
Altitudes
(m asl)
Shade Trees
Botanical Name
Local Name
900-2000
Alnus nepalensis
Gama shing (Dz), Gotshanang shing (Sh), Utish (L),
900-1200
Schima wallichi
Puyam (Dz), Zala shing (Sh), Chilaune (L),
900-1200
Machilus odoratissima
Kaulo (L),
900-1500
Macaranga denticulate
Malato (L),
900-1500

Sapindus detergens

Nakapani (Dz), Kili shing (Sh), Ritha (L),
900-1600

Choerospondias axillaris

Lapsi (L),
900-1600
Boehmeria regulusa
Dongtshong shing (Sh), Dar (L),
1200-1600
Morus macroura
Tshondo shing (Dz), Shongden shing (Sh), Kimbu (L),
1200-2000
Myrica nagi Thunb
Kaphal (L),
1400-2000
Saurauvia nepalensis
Mongdormn shing (Sh), Gogun (L),
1400-2000
Castanopsis hystrix
Tsho shing (Sh), Patlay.Katus (L),
1400-2000
Nyssa javanica
Zala shing (Sh), Lekh Chilaune (L),
1500-200
Nindera neesiana
Singsi Shing (Sh)
Dz=Dzongkha, S S=Sartshop,  L=Lhostham
Besides, depending upon the local knowledge and the species growing in the locality farmer may choose to suit their best interest.
Insect pests
Several pests infest or damage Large cardamom, however heavy losses do not occur.  Among all, a vertebrate pest locally called ‘Kala’ does most damage as it eats ripened capsules.  Farmers should find and destroy its living places within the plantation and in the nearby areas to minimize the damage. 
In Large Cardamom orchards, there prevails micro-ecosystem where there exist a balance between pests and predators.  The insect pests in Large Cardamom orchard is best managed by managing the balance between pests and predators. 
Diseases
Among diseases, two viral diseases namely the Tshirkay and Foorkay are the major diseases of Large Cardamom. 
Effective direct control measure for these diseases is not there. 
To a certain degree the problem could be mitigated through field sanitation and removing infected plants at a regular interval. 
Whenever the symptoms of these two diseases are noticed, the infected plants should be removed and either burned or buried. 
In the infested area it is safer to use seed sapling instead of slips as planting material. 
The dynamics of aphid population responsible for transmitting the virus is not very well known. 
In infested areas farmers are advised to practice three things: (1) planting sapling from seed, (2) regular removal diseased plants based visual symptoms and (3) spray recommended organic pesticides only that help minimizing aphid population that spreads the disease. 
The symptoms of diseases:
Tshirkay
Symptoms are clearly visible in the young leaves.  Pale green stripes are seen on the leaves running from mid-rib to the margin of the leaves.  Later there will be a characteristic mosaic pattern. 
Foorkay
A Large number of pale yellow stunted sterile shoots come out.  The central spindles of the aerial shoots are damaged and thus emergence of leaves is hindered.
Besides Tshirkay and Foorkay, farmers may encounter rhizom rot problem. 
In case of rhizom rot, farm may drench the clumps with a solution of fungicides recommended for organic farming. 
Inter-culture operations
Manuring
Manuring should be done in the month of February.  In a well-managed orchard the compost made from the biomass collected during weeding and cleaning of the plantation should be enough.  It may be supplemented with farm yards manures and mulching with available mulch material. 
Irrigation
The Large Cardamom consistently needs a moist soil.  It needs irrigation particularly on the southern slopes in the months of November to March and often in the months of April if the rainfall is not adequate. 
The Large Cardamom flowers in the month of April and May and during these months if Large Cardamom plants suffer drought stress, the seed set will be very poor. 
In the kind of terrain on which Large Cardamom only the drip and sprinkler systems are appropriate. 
Farmers may adopt water harvesting and use drip or sprinklers to keep the soil moist uniformly across the plantation. 
Weeding
Weeding should be done at least twice a year.  First weeding should be done in May-June, i.e. at the beginning of the on-set of the monsoon and the second weeding should be done in September-October i.e. before harvesting time. 
The biomass cut or removed during weeding should be dumped in compost pits at convenient locations in the orchard. 
At harvesting time or soon after harvesting, farmers should remove tillers, which have produced fruits and tillers without fruits and dump in the compost pits. 
Farmers should follow guidelines provided for making plant nutrient enriched compost.
Pollination
The Large Cardamom is essentially a cross pollinated plant.  Due to the hetero-styllic nature of the flower they are often wrongly considered as self-fertile. 
For the Large Cardamom honey-bees and bumble bees are the chief pollinators and therefore farmers are advised to maintain honey bee colonies in their plantation to enhance the productivity of their orchard.
Protection from cattle grazing
The Cattle grazing in the Large Cardamom orchard is detrimental to the growth production particularly of the young plants.  The damage is caused by browsing and trampling on the young plants.  Also the germination and growth of naturally growing tree species are hindered. 
Farmers should plant adequate fodder trees in the orchards to meet the fodder requirement of the cattle rather than letting cattle to graze in the orchard. 
INTER CROPPING
Two economic species can be intercropped in the ecosystem in which Large Cardamom is grown. 
At lower altitudes from 900 to 1500 m asl, Pipla (Piper longum), the climber type Pipla can be grown by allowing the plants to climb on the shading trees. 
At higher altitudes from 1500 to 2000 m asl, farmers can intercrop Chirata (Swertia chirata) with Large cardamom. 
Like Large Cardamom these species are shade loving species and they can share a similar habitat. 
Pipla
There are two distinct types of pipla, the climber type Pipla (Piper longum) and bush type Pipla (Piper nigrum).  The cultivation of bush type Pipla cannot be integrated as it takes the space of Large Cardamom. 
The climber type Pipla is of higher value than the bush Pipla, which naturally grows in the humid sub-tropical forest of Bhutan. 
The propagation of Pipla can be through cutting and the cultivation method is same as that of Black Pepper (Piper nigrum). 
Chirata
Chirata (Swertia chirata) is a high value medicinal plant.  The species of highest grade and economic importance can only be found around Serthi and Lauri geogs of Samdrup Jongkhar dzongkhag. 
Seeds can be obtained from the places where it naturally grows.  Chirata is biennial crop and therefore it flowers only in the second year when it can be harvested and marketed. 
PRODUCTION AND YIELD
In good soil with optimum tree cover, production starts from the third year of planting and reaches the maximum in the 7-8th years and continues up to about 20 years. 
After 20 years the production of the clumps declines and by 25 years the old clumps should be removed and replanting of young sapling preferably raised from seeds should be done.  Therefore, farmers should keep record of the year of establishment and productivity of the plantation and carry out replanting every 25 years. 
There is very little information on the yield of the Large Cardamom.  The anecdotal information on yield ranges between 100 to 600 kg per acre.  A good orchard may yield about 400-500 kg dry Cardamom per acre. 
Kar i basappa (1992) reported the yield of some varieties at different altitudes:
Yield per culm (gm)
Altitude
(m asl)
Varieties
Ramsey
Sawney
Rato Golsey
Seto Golsey
Dzongu Golsey
Ramla
Madhusey
1325
772
630
1182
801
542
961
668
1925
978
643
1144
920
76
919
1114
From this table some assessment on yield potentials may be derived.
DRYING
Large Cardamom is harvested in September at lower altitudes and in November in higher altitudes. 
About 2.6 tonnes firewood would be needed for drying Cardamom harvested from one hectare.  But in well-managed Large Cardamom orchards about 3.2 tonnes of firewood can be harvested annually through loping and thinning of shade tree (Masahiro Kawamura 2000). 
Drying in Bhatti
Large Cardamom capsules must be dried soon after harvesting, from the original moisture contents of 70-80% to less than 10%. 
Farmers in Bhutan still continue to dry Cardamom in the traditional dryer called bhatti, which takes 30 to 50 hours to dry one batch of cardamom. 
The thermal efficiency of the bhatti is only 5-15% due to which there is a huge loss of fuel wood.  Also, the fire in the bhatti is difficult to control and it often leads to localised charring of the capsules and thereby reducing the Cardamom’s volatile aromatic oil content and thus its culinary value. 
The smoke passing through also taints the Large Cardamoms’ flavour as well as turns them black from their natural red colour. 

Drying in gasifier-based drier
The Indo-Swiss Project Sikkim (ISPS) has developed through Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI), a simple updraft wood gasifier system for drying Cardamom.  This system can be made in local workshops and fitted to existing bhatti. 
The gasifier-based drier is beneficial in two ways:
   First, it burns the fuel wood more efficiently and there will be 60% saving of fuel wood, and
   Secondly, it improves the quality of dried Cardamom capsules by retaining its natural colour and 35% more essential oils, and by avoiding the burnt smell. 
The traditional Bhatti consumes up to 2.3 kg fuel wood for drying one kg of fresh Cardamom while the gasifier-based drier consistently dries one kg fresh Cardamom with 0.5 to 0.6 kg fuel wood. 

Reference
Pradhan P M (1999), RNR Technical Recommendations (Horticulture), RNR Research Centre, Khangma, June 2, 1999
Web Reference
   CardamomDevelopment Centre (CDC), Ilam
   Weeding, mulching, harvesting, Large cardamom, Sikkim
   ICRI spots high-yielding Large Cardamomclones
   Large Cardamomdiseases, sawney, Sikkim
   Saurabh Gupta and Syed Taha Owais: IT potential in agriculture-A GIS implementation in evaluating Cardamompotential in Sikkim Himalayas
   Sanjay Mande (TERI): India-Putting the colour back into cardamom
   Mande P S, Kumar A, and Kishore V V N (1999), A study of Large Cardamomchambers in Sikkim, Biomass and Bioenergy 16: 463-473
   Masahiro Kawamura, 2000, Large cardamom